As detailed in our previous blog, “The Creation of the Hebrew People,” the archaeological evidence points to the Hebrew people, comprising 12 tribes, beginning their migration to Canaan as early as 1200 B.C. A significant historical artifact, the stele of Merenptah, also known as the Israel stele, was crafted around 1207 B.C. This stele, which describes Pharaoh Merenptah’s defeat of Israel, is the earliest known reference to Israel outside the Hebrew Bible.
The Israelites were settled in Canaan by 1080 B.C. According to the Hebrew Bible, Israelites established boundaries according to their tribal affiliation. The Bible explains the Hebrews settling in Canaan led to conflict with the existing people in Canaan. Conflicts with people like the Philistines, a coastal sea people whom scholars such as J Maxwell Miller and John H. Hayes believe to be early Palestinians, led to the Hebrews creating a monarch. Archeological evidence supports the Hebrew Bible’s account of a Hebrew monarchy; however, the evidence shows a more modest kingdom compared with its neighbors than that described in the Hebrew Bible.
Map of the twelve tribes of Israel according to the Bible in Joshua 13–19). 12 tribus de Israel.svg: Translated by Kordas12 staemme israels heb.svg: by user:יוסי12 staemme israels.png: by user:Janzderivative work Richardprins, CC BY-SA 3.0 <http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/>, via Wikimedia Commons
King Saul
The Bible explains that Hebrews lived under the leadership of Judges or tribal leaders until they established a monarch, creating the Kingdom of Israel. According to the Hebrew Bible, the first Hebrew Monarch was King Saul, who ascended to the throne around 1020 BC. The Biblical narrative states that King Saul and his son Jonathan died battling the Philistines. Following King Saul’s death, his son-in-law, David, became King.
Ancient Roman ruins in the Beth Shean National Park near Mount Gilboa, the death site of King Saul of Israel.
King David
King David’s reign was a transformative period in the history of the Hebrew people. He successfully united the 12 tribes and established the Kingdom of Israel, which marked a significant shift. The people of Israel henceforth became known as Israelites.
King David died about 3000 years ago, and his son Solomon became King. King Solomon created trade relationships with outside Kingdoms, which led to trade passing through his Kingdom. He also grew Israel’s wealth, taxed his subjects, and built the first Jewish temple in Jerusalem. King Solomon died around 930 BC, creating an irreparable rift among the Israelites.
Illustration of King David's Kingdom. Attribution: Rusty Russell Bible History Online. This map is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 License.
Civil War
The Kingdom of Israel split into a northern and a southern Kingdom after King Solomon died over the taxes and forced labor that began under King Solomon. 10 out of the 12 tribes left the United Kingdom of Israel to form a northern Kingdom, which continued to be called Israel. The remaining two tribes maintained a southern Kingdom called Judah, after the tribe that comprised most of the southern Kingdom. The people of Judah became known as Jews. Israel’s capital was Samaria, and its people became known as Samaritans. At the time, Israel was larger and wealthier than Judah.
Map of Kingdoms of Israel and Judah in the 9th century BCE. Oldtidens_Israel_&_Judea.svg: FinnWikiNoderivative work: Richardprins, CC BY-SA 3.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0>, via Wikimedia Commons
Israel and Judah often fought as they coexisted for two centuries. In addition to fighting Judah, Israel fought against a non-Jewish kingdom called Moab, discussed in a ninth-century B.C. stele created by a Moabite king. However, it was the infighting between Israel and Judah and their allies that eventually led to Israel’s destruction.
This is a map of ancient Moab territory, which neighbored Israel and Judah to the east, with disputed territories such as Nebo and Baal-meon shown to the north. The map shows Atarot and Dibon, the site where the Mesha Stele was discovered, due east of the Dead Sea. Dan Fefferman, GFDL <http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/fdl.html>, via Wikimedia Commons
Assyria
Between the ninth and seventh centuries B.C., the Kingdom of Israel grew as a major military power and increased in wealth. The Assyrian Empire grew in size and influence during this time as well. A Stele Inscription of Shalmaneser III of Assyria says the Israelite King Ahab’s army that fought against him consisted of over 2,000 chariots and 10,000 infantry, an impressive size for that time. The Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III, a black limestone sculpture that shows tributes given to Shalmaneser III of Nimrud from vassal States, records that the Assyrian Empire received tributes from the Israelite King Jehu.
Shalmaneser III praying in front of divine symbols (Ashur, Ishtar, Anu, and Sin). The cuneiform inscription is a text of a version of the King's annals and narrates his campaign in chronological order, concluding with a description of the battle of Qarqar in 853 BCE against a large coalition led by the kings of Damascus and Hamath. Neo-Assyrian Period, reign of Shalmaneser III, circa 852 BCE. From Kurkh, Diyarbakir, modern-day Turkey. (The British Museum, London). Osama Shukir Muhammed Amin FRCP(Glasg), CC BY-SA 4.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commons
During the rule of Israel’s King Pekah, around 735 B.C., the Assyrian King Tiglath-Pileser III launched a military campaign that conquered several Israeli cities. King Pekah was assassinated around 732 B.C., and Hosea became King of Israel. The Hebrew Bible suggests that the Assyrian battles against Israel were part of a larger war where Israel and Judah fought against each other. The Assyrians were allied with Judah, while a Kingdom named Aram aligned with Israel. The Israelite King Hoshea was forced to continue to pay tribute to the Assyrians, which caused King Hosea to rebel against the Assyrians around 723 B.C. The Assyrians defeated the Samaritans, which resulted in the Samaritans being relocated from the Kingdom of Israel and the Kingdom being absorbed into Assyrians, effectively bringing an end to the Kingdom of Israel.
A map showing the deportation of the Jews by the Assyrians. Joelholdsworth, CC BY-SA 3.0 <http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/>, via Wikimedia Commons
TLDR Conclusion
In brief, after a civil war that erupted following King Solomon’s death, the Hebrews became two distinct entities. The northern Kingdom, retaining the name Israel, saw its people, the Samaritans, facing a tragic end. The Kingdom of Israel’s dissolution, marked by a violent rebellion against the Assyrians, resulted in Israel’s absorption into Assyria and the forced exodus of the Israelites. This marked the end of the Kingdom of Israel and the beginning of what is often referred to as the lost tribes of Israel.
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References:
Mark, Joshua J.. "Kingdom of Israel." World History Encyclopedia. Last modified October 26, 2018. Accessed November 21, 2023. https://www.worldhistory.org/Kingdom_of_Israel/.
Brooks, Christopher. "Western Civilization: A Concise History." Press Books. December 2, 2020. Accessed November 20, 2023. https://pressbooks.nscc.ca/worldhistory/chapter/the-hebrews/.
The Bible: 1 Samuel, 2 Samuel, 1 Kings, 2 Kings, 1 Chronicles
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