Our previous article discussed the historical significance of the term 'Palestine' and how the Byzantine Empire extended the usage of the name Palestine to describe a larger area than the Romans. This historical context dispels claims that a place called Palestine never existed, making it a crucial part of our understanding of the region.
This article will delve into the history of Israel and Palestine, exploring how Jewish people migrated to Europe and how the Palestinian population became Arabic-speaking Muslims, providing insight into the roots of the ongoing Israel and Palestine conflict.
Map of the 5th Century Byzantine Empire. The Byzantine Empire first defined the geographical area of "Palestine" at the end of the 4th century, according to the borders of the Diocese of Palaestina Prima and Palaestina Secunda. By Haldrik, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=1472706
Until the seventh century, an unspoken equilibrium existed, with one empire ruling to the east of the Euphrates and another to the west, with buffer States in between. These buffer States, including Palestine, often acted as battlefields for the empires. This equilibrium changed during the seventh century, setting the stage for the complex dynamics between Israel and Palestine that we see today.
A map of the Fertile Crescent that includes the location of ancient Mesopotamia between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. Astroskiandhike, CC BY-SA 4.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commons. https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/71/Fertile_Crescent.svg
The early seventh century was a tumultuous period for the area we now refer to as Israel and Palestine. Within twenty-four years, three different empires ruled the region: the Byzantines, the Persians, the Byzantines reconquering the area, and finally, the Islamic Caliphates. The rule of the Islamic Caliphates in Palestine was a significant period in the region's history, shaping its religious and cultural landscape. Our prior article focused on the Byzantine and Persian eras, and this article will delve into the impact of the Islamic Caliphates, providing crucial context for understanding the ongoing conflict between Palestinians and Israelis.
Arab Identity
It is common to hear references to Arabs when speaking about the Israel-Hamas and Israel-Palestine conflicts. If one were to use context clues, one would quickly think references to Arabs were references to an ethnic group. However, Arabs have not been exclusively used to describe an ethnic group since at least the 7th century, when Arab was commonly used to describe nomadic Semitic groups of the Arabian Peninsula. The Arabian region includes countries such as Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, the United Arab Emirates, Yemen, Bahrain, and parts of Jordan and Iraq. According to tradition, Arabs are believed to have descended from Qaḥṭān (Northern Arabs) and Adnān (Southern Arabs), who are said to be descendants of Abraham's (a Biblical patriarch) son Ishmael. Since the 7th century, Arab has generally been used to describe people whose native language is Arabic.
Map of the Arabic peninsula. Attribution: Original: Lokal Profil et al.Modifications: Kameraad Pjotr, CC BY-SA 3.0 <http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/>, via Wikimedia Commons
An Arab is a member of an ethnic group that is native to the Arabian Peninsula and whose native language is Arabic. On the other hand, a Muslim is a follower of the Islamic faith, which is not limited to Arabs. Many people use Arab and Muslim interchangeably. It is essential not to use the terms Arab and Muslim interchangeably because the two words are not always mutually exclusive to the same people. For example, the country with the largest Muslim population today is Indonesia, where the majority of the population is not of Arab ethnicity. This distinction is crucial for understanding the complexities and distinctions of the conflict between Israel and Palestine versus Israel's conflicts in countries such as Lebanon, Iraq, Syria, and Yemen.
The Rashidun Caliphate
Following the Prophet Muhammad's death in 632 BC, political power in Arabia shifted to the Islamic Caliphates, where a caliph, the leader of a Caliphate, led the Muslim community. The first Caliphate was called the Rashidun Caliphate and was led by Abu Bakr, the Prophet Muhammad's father-in-law. This period marked the beginning of significant changes in the region that can still be felt today in Palestine and Israel.
Map of Rashidun Caliphate from 632-661. Mohammad Adil, CC BY-SA 3.0 <http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/>, via Wikimedia Commons
In 634, Umar ibn al-Khattab, leader of the second Caliphate, invaded Palestine, defeating the Byzantines two years later and conquering Jerusalem in 638. Similar to the Byzantines, Umar divided Palestine into two administrative districts (jund): Jordan (Al-ʿUrdūn) and Palestine (Filasṭīn). Jordan included Galilee and Acre (Akko), extending east to the desert. Palestine included the region south of the lowland in northern Israel that divides the hilly areas of Galilee in the north and Samaris in the south, called the Plain of Esdraelon. This division would later influence the geographical boundaries of the West Bank and Gaza Strip, which are crucial issues in the conflict between Palestine and Israel.
The vector version of the iconic calligraphy of the 2nd Rashidun Chalif, Umar ibn Al-Khattāb, which is prominent in the Hagia Sofia in Istanbul, Turkey. Petermaleh, CC BY-SA 3.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0>, via Wikimedia Commons.
Under Caliph Umar's rule, the people of Palestine experienced a significant increase in economic and religious autonomy. Umar's reforms, such as lifting the prohibition on Jewish people living in Jerusalem and establishing key institutions, marked a period of empowerment and progress for the region.
Despite its conquests and reforms, the Rashidun Caliphate was known for its instability, which ushered in the Umayyad Caliphate. These governance and population movements would later contribute to the complex dynamics seen today.
Attribution: Al Ameer son, CC BY-SA 4.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commons
The Umayyad Caliphate
The Umayyad Dynasty ruled from 661 to 750. The Islamic Caliphate greatly expanded, reaching its largest extent during the Umayyad Caliphate. Palestine was one of the main provinces of the Umayyad Caliphate.
The Umayyad Dynasty was more tolerant of Jewish people than the Byzantine Empire, which allowed Jewish people to live in Jerusalem again, resulting in a small permanent Jewish population in Jerusalem. This period of tolerance would later contrast with the tensions that arose during the development of Zionism and Palestinian nationalism.
The Umayyad empire was extensive, spanning most of Southwest Asia, North Africa, and Spain. After the Arabs conquered the Maghreb, the west (North Africa and Spain), thousands of Jewish people began taking advantage of the commercial ties connecting the various parts of the Muslim empire, moving to North Africa and Spain, increasing the Jewish diaspora. This movement of Jewish populations would later play a role in the complex history of Israel and Palestine, influencing the demographics of the region and contributing to the eventual establishment of the State of Israel.
Expansion of the caliphate, 622–750 CE: (Muhammad, 622–632 CE; Rashidun caliphate, 632–661 CE; Umayyad caliphate, 661–750 CE). DieBuche, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons
Caliph Abd al-Malik (698 - 705) is known for moving the Caliphate's capital to Damascus and for building the Dome of the Rock on the Temple Mount (the site of the first and second Jewish temples) in Jerusalem in 691. Abd al-Malik's son, al-Walid (705 - 715), became known for rebuilding and expanding the Al-Asa Mosque. These architectural developments in Jerusalem would later become significant points of contention between Israel and Palestine, particularly regarding the status of Jerusalem and control over holy sites.
Dome of the Rock.
Toward the end of the Umayyad Caliphate, Umar II (717-720) imposed restrictions on non-Muslim subjects. This resulted in increased conversions to Islam and changed Palestine from a predominantly Christian to a primarily Muslim and Arabic-speaking population, a change which would last until the modern era. This shift in religious and linguistic demographics would play a crucial role in shaping the cultural identity of Palestinians and contribute to the complexities of the Israel and Palestine conflict.
The Abbasid Caliphate
A rebellion broke out, and a coup by the Abbasid family removed the Umayyads from power and created the Abbasid caliphate. The Abbasids ruled for about 250 years. Pro-Ummayad uprisings and civil unrest were common during the Abbasid Caliphate. The Abbasid Caliphate is known for moving the capital from modern-day Syria to modern-day Baghdad in Iraq to be closer to Persia. Palestine was under Ikhshidid rule for 34 years after the end of the Abbasid Caliphate. These political changes continued to shape the region's history, influencing the development of Palestinian territories and the eventual rise of Palestinian nationalism.
Attribution: Cattette, CC BY 4.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commons
The Ikhshidid Caliphate
Muhammad ibn Tughj al-Ikhshid founded the Ikhshidid Caliphate and ruled from Egypt. He was given the title Ikhshid (King) by the Abbasid Caliphate al-Radi Billah, who was decentralizing power. Muhammad ibn Tughj initially acted as governor on behalf of the Abbasid Caliphate; however, he eventually gained independence. The short-lived Caliphate was weakened by famine and continued invasions. In 969, a Fatimid general overthrew the Ikhshidids. This period of political instability would continue to influence the region's development, setting the stage for future conflicts and power struggles in Palestine.
Ikhshidids. Muhammad al-Ikhshid.Filastin (al-Ramla) mint. Dated AH 332 (943-4 CE). Classical Numismatic Group, Inc. http://www.cngcoins.com, CC BY-SA 3.0 <http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/>, via Wikimedia Commons
The Fatimid Caliphate
The Fatimids, the only Shiite Caliphate, began their conquest of Palestine in 970. The Fatimid briefly returned to the old unspoken equilibrium, using Palestine's strategic location as a battlefield to fight off the Qarmatian, Seljuq, Byzantine, and Bedouin forces. Caliph al-Hakim created harsh laws toward non-Muslim subjects and ordered the Church of the Holy Sepulcher to be destroyed in 1009. The Seljuqs captured Jerusalem in 1071. Jerusalem was recaptured by the Fatimids in 1098. The Crusades started a year later, in 1099, ending the Islamic Caliphates. These events further complicated the religious and political landscape of Palestine, contributing to the complex history that would be seen again with foreign Western interventions in the geopolitics of Palestine and Israel.
Map of the Fatimid State covering Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, Palestine and the island of Sicily. AUT999, CC BY-SA 4.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commons. https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ac/Fatimid_State.png
TLDR-Conclusion
The 5 Islamic Caliphates, who ruled for approximately 1,500 years, permanently changed Palestine. The Caliphates divided Palestine into two administrative districts, Jordan and Palestine. They also led to the free movement of people, which saw thousands of Jewish people leave to move to Northern Africa and Spain. In addition, the Caliphates shifted the religious landscape as the predominately Christian Byzantine Palestine turned into a primarily Arabic-speaking Muslim society. These changes laid the foundation for the complex. history of Israel and Palestine, influencing the development of Palestinian territories, the rise of Zionism and Palestinian nationalism, and ultimately contributing to the Israeli and Palestinian conflict we see today.
Understanding this historical context is crucial for comprehending the roots of the Israel and Palestine conflict and the ongoing regional tensions. Specifically, understanding the history of the Islamic Caliphates provides insights into the movement of people and changing land boundaries that aid in understanding who lived on the land, encompassing modern-day Palestine and Israel first, Israelis or Palestinians. This history is essential for anyone seeking to understand the complexities of the conflict between Palestinians and Israelis and the challenges facing potential solutions, such as a two-state solution.
Subscribe so we can notify you that our new post is available. Our Middle East Objective Analysis series of weekly articles informs readers of the history of modern-day Israel and Palestine. The series begins with prehistoric people, detailing the first people to live in modern-day Israel and Palestine, and will conclude with the modern events leading up to 1948. Next week's article will discuss modern-day Israel and Palestine during the Byzantine period.
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