This article is part of our weekly series exploring the complex history of modern-day Israel and Palestine. As we delve into the region's historical roots, we aim to provide context for understanding the ongoing Israel and Palestine conflict and the current Middle East tensions seen in Israel's war with Hamas.
In our last article, we explored the creation of the Islamic Caliphate(s) and the remarkable transformation it brought to modern-day Israel and Palestine. The Islamic Caliphs, through their conquests, reshaped the region's character and demographics, introducing new cultural, architectural, and linguistic influences. This was a testament to the resilience and adaptability of its inhabitants, who absorbed and integrated these changes into their own societies.
We also discussed how Caliph al-Hakim, head of the Fatimid Caliphate, destroyed the Church of the Holy Sepulchre (Church of the Anastasis), which many Christians believe to be Calvary, where Jesus Christ was crucified, buried, and rose from the grave. This act of destruction not only had a profound impact on the Christian population, leading to widespread outrage and a desire for retribution but also fueled tensions between different religious groups in the region, particularly between Christians and Muslims.
Picture of Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem. Berthold Werner, CC BY-SA 3.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0>, via Wikimedia Commons
This week, we will discuss how the Crusades led to the creation of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, a pivotal chapter in the history of Palestine and Israel. The establishment of the Kingdom of Jerusalem marks a significant period in the rich and often tumultuous history of the region, which continues to shape the Israel and Palestinian conflict today. This Christian state, founded during the First Crusade, played a pivotal role in shaping the region's religious and political landscape, a testament to its enduring and weighty importance.
'The Capture of Jerusalem' painting depicting the siege of Jerusalem in 1099.
Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons
Background on The Crusades
The Crusades were military campaigns launched by European Christians with the stated purpose of reclaiming the Holy Land. Many factors contributed to the Crusades, including the East-West Schism, a significant event that led to the split between the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Roman Catholic Church in 1054. This division in the Christian world played a crucial role in the Crusades. When Alexios I, a Byzantine Emperor, asked Western leaders to help fight and eliminate the Seljuk Turks, who ruled Jerusalem and other territories of the Byzantine Empire, Pope Urban II saw Alexios I's request as an opportunity to reunite the split Church.
This is a map of the eastern/western allegiances in 1054, with the former country borders (showing dominant religions on a state level). Barrikader (talk · contribs), CC BY-SA 3.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0>, via Wikimedia Commons
The destruction of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre also lent a pretense to war against Muslims, creating a desire to recapture what European Christians saw as the Holy Land and Holy Sites and a desire to reclaim what was considered Christian territory during the height of the Byzantine Empire.
Many argue that Pope Urban II was also motivated to start the Crusades to strengthen the power of the Papacy and the Christian Church.
For the reasons we've just discussed, Pope Urban II delivered a sermon at the Council of Clermont, known by Jewish chroniclers of the Crusades as Har Afel (the mount of gloom). In this pivotal speech, he called for Christians to unite and recapture Jerusalem from Muslims, effectively sparking the Crusades, a series of European Christian holy wars. Pope Urban II's motivations were religious and political, as he saw the Crusades as a way to strengthen the power of the Papacy and the Christian Church and unite the Christian world under his leadership.
Pope Urban II. preaching the First Crusade in the Market-place of Clermont (See page 119) p115 in "Cassell's Illustrated History of England, Volume 1". John Cassell, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons
Over 200 years, the Crusades brought instability to modern-day Palestine and Israel, resulting in frequent battles and leadership changes between Christian European and Muslim rulers. This period of conflict and shifting control laid the groundwork for future tensions in the region, including the current Palestine and Israel conflict.
First Crusade
The goal of the First Crusade was for European Christians to rescue Christians from their Muslim rulers and to repossess Christian holy places, such as Jerusalem. The first Crusade started in 1096 and led to the capture of Jerusalem on July 15, 1099. The Crusaders massacred Muslims, Jews, and dissident Eastern Christians as they overtook Jerusalem, setting a precedent for violence that would echo through the centuries.
Brandon Wilson pioneered a map of the Templar Trail from France to Jerusalem on pilgrimage in 2006. Alpiner123, CC BY-SA 4.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commons.
Four Crusade States, collectively known as the Latin East or Outremer, were formed to defend the land won by the Crusaders. The new States were the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem, the County of Edessa, the County of Tripoli, and the Principality of Antioch. The Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem expanded to include parts of modern-day Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, and Palestine. The Crusaders' victory led to resentment among the Muslim caliphates, leading to war between Muslim and Christian States.
A political map of the Near East in 1135 CE. Crusader states are marked with a red cross. MapMaster, CC BY-SA 3.0 <http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/>, via Wikimedia Commons
Second Crusade
The Second Crusade, launched by Louis VII of France and Conrad III of Germany from 1127 to 1149, primarily responded to the fall of the County of Edessa. The Crusaders were unsuccessful during this Crusade and defeated by the Seljuq Turks. The failure of the European Kings in the Second Crusade led to the Third Crusade at the end of the 12th century, which led to European Christians losing Jerusalem.
Map of the Second Crusade. Deuxième croisade.JPG: Guilhem06~commonswikiDerivative work: Arrow303, CC BY-SA 3.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0>, via Wikimedia Commons
Third Crusade
Frederick Barbarossa, the Holy Roman Emperor, King Richard I of England, and King Phillip II of France led the Third Crusade. The Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem stayed in the hands of the Crusaders until 1187, when Ṣalāh al-Dīn Yūsuf ibn Ayyūb, also known as Saladin, Sultan of Egypt and Syria, defeated the Crusaders at the Battle of Hattin in 1187. The third Crusade lasted from 1189 - 1192, ending with a treaty that allowed the Christian pilgrims to travel to the Christian Holy Land (modern-day Israel and Palestine).
The Third Crusade (1189-1192). Kandi, CC BY-SA 4.0. Based on: Карта "Кръстоносни походи (ХІ-ХІІІ в.)" в "Атлас по история на Средните векове за шести клас", КИПП по картография, София, 1979 г. <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commons
Fourth Crusade
Pope Innocent III led the Fourth Crusade against the Muslim Ayyub Dynasty to recapture Jerusalem through Egypt. The Crusaders defeated Constantinople and eventually ended the Byzantine Empire.
The Pope Innocent III - fresco mid 13th century - Monastery of Sacro Speco of Saint Benedict - Subiaco (Rome). Carlo Raso, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons
Fifth - Sixth Crusade
The Ayyub Dynasty ruled the Kingdom of Jerusalem from the Third Crusade until the Sixth Crusade, which occurred in 1229 when the Holy Roman Emperor and King of Sicily Frederick II partially recaptured Jerusalem. The Ayyub Dynasty, led by Sultan al-Kamil (Sultan of Egypt and Syria), was a significant player in the Crusades. Frederick II negotiated a treaty with Sultan al-Kamil, which gave Jerusalem and important Christian sites to the Crusaders. Frederick II was crowned King of Jerusalem in 1229. However, Emperor Frederick's victory was shortlived, and Jerusalem fell in 1244 to the Ayyubid Sultan al-Ṣāliḥ Ayyūb, provoking the Seventh Crusade by Louis IX of France.
Map of Anatolia and some surrounding regions in AD 1200. (Partially based on Euratlas map of Europe, 1200.) Gabagool, CC BY 3.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0>, via Wikimedia Commons
A political map of the Near East from 1229 until 1241 CE. Map Crusader states 1240: Ziegelbrenner derivative work: Blue Danube, CC BY-SA 4.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commons.
Seventh - Ninth Crusades
The Ayybubid Sultan al-Sahih Ayyub returned and reclaimed The Kingdom of Jerusalem in 1244. The Crusaders unsuccessfully continued to attack the Ayyubs after their defeat in 1244. While the Ayyubid Sultans continued to fight the Crusaders, they were attacked by Mongols from the East as well as the Turkic Mamluks (slave soldiers established during the Abbasid era). The Mamluk generals defeated Ayyubid in 1250 and became the rulers of Jerusalem. The Mamluk Sultan al-Ashraf Ṣalāḥ ad-Dīn Khalīl defeated the Ayyubids and took the capital of the Kingdom of Jerusalem in Acre (modern-day Akko), in 1291, officially beating the Crusaders, Ayyubid, and Mongols.
The Mamluk regimes ruled Palestine for 600 years until the Ottoman Sultan Selim I defeated the Mamluk armies at the Battle of Marj Dabiq in 1516, ushering in Ottoman rule, which lasted four centuries.
Map of the Ninth Crusade. A455bcd9, CC BY-SA 4.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commons
The Mamluk regimes ruled Palestine for 600 years until the Ottoman Sultan Selim I defeated the Mamluk armies at the Battle of Marj Dabiq in 1516, ushering in Ottoman rule, which lasted four centuries. This long period of Ottoman control would significantly shape the region's demographics and political landscape, setting the stage for future conflicts, including the modern Israel and Palestine conflict.
Conclusion - TLDR
The challenges faced by the multicultural Kingdom of Jerusalem mirror some difficulties in achieving peaceful coexistence today in the context of the conflict between Israel and Palestine. The Kingdom of Jerusalem, established in 1099, represented a brief period of rule by European Crusaders that was often interrupted by conquest by Muslim leaders, Mongols, and finally overtaken by Turkic Mamluks. Its existence and eventual fall have lasting impacts, such as reinforcing the importance of Jerusalem to European Christianity and creating historical narratives that continue to influence how some perceive Palestine and Israel today.
Like the Crusaders, both Israelis and Palestinians claim historical and religious connections to modern Palestine and Israel, specifically East Jerusalem. The Crusades demonstrate a long history of external powers influencing the region. This pattern continues in contemporary Middle Eastern geopolitics, with various international actors involved.
As we continue to explore the history of Israel and Palestine in this series, we will delve deeper into how past events have shaped the current situation, including the establishment of the State of Israel, the Palestinian experience, and the ongoing search for peace. Examining historical events like the Kingdom of Jerusalem can help better understand historical events, which provides crucial context for comprehending the complexities of the Israel and Palestine conflict, including issues like the Gaza Strip blockade, Palestinian refugees, and the challenges facing the peace process. It's crucial to consider how historical narratives shape the current perceptions and influence efforts toward a two-state solution or other potential resolutions to the conflict.
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